"Intra-sentential Code Switching (CS) refers to the phenomenon in which bilingual speakers switch between two or more languages within a clause or conversation. Research has shown that CS requires methodologies and rules to follow, highlighting how bilingual communities navigate speech patterns, particularly the grammatical and structural differences between the two languages. We will investigate two specific linguistic phenomena: inalienable possession (IP) and the Differential Object Marker (DOM) in Spanish-English CS. The IP is something possessive that is innately connected to you and displayed differently across the two languages: English uses the possessive form, as in (1), while Spanish requires the determiner before the noun, as in (2). The DOM in Spanish can function as an accusative case marker ' a ’ before a human and animate direct object, as seen in (3), but is not needed in (4), and is a feature not present in English (5). Using a two-alternative forced-choice task and elicited production, this study will examine whether people apply the same grammatical rules and linguistic phenomena in CS when given options, compared with their natural speech. Specifically, it will examine whether the direction of the switch is determined by the structure of one language and the grammar of the other. Whether Spanish-English bilinguals prefer possessive vs. definite, omit the DOM, or keep it in CS, as in (6-7). Findings from this project will provide the first empirical data on DOM, offering insights into the linguistic processes of code-switching in Spanish-English bilinguals and how their brains simultaneously blend two languages. Examples (1) I broke my arm (2) Me rompi el brazo (3) Yo vi a mi mama (4) Yo vi el carro rojo (5) I saw my mom (6) Yo vi my mom (7) Yo vi a my mom"

As English widely dominates institutions globally and locally, immigrant communities face immense pressure to adopt and assimilate into the dominant English speaking society. Thus, learning English is necessary for many immigrants as it is a stance for economic survival and social participation. This rapid shift, although seen as positive, also comes with a cost. This is seen through Hmong American families, in which Hmong children can no longer speak their heritage language fluently. Studies show that most second- and third-generation Hmong children are speaking only English to their parents and family members. This study examines language loss through three components: 1) language practices and habitual patterns of use, 2) beliefs and ideologies about the Hmong language, and 3) language management efforts. Two hundred six participants (58% male, 42% female), ages ranged from 18 to 81 (mean = 51.85, SD = 14.41) participated in 30 focus groups (57% male, 42% female with a mean age = 51.57, SD = 14.34), 13 interviews with community members (31% male, 69% female with a mean age = 40.15, SD = 14.84), and 13 teacher interviews (33% male, 67% female with a mean age = 47.67, SD = 6.78). A descriptive analysis of the language endangerment item (Lee & Way, 2016) found that most participants (71.4%) believed the Hmong language is considered “threatened” or “endangered”. The findings suggest that heritage language loss is driven by the lack of community language practices, insufficient management and institutional support, and beliefs in the preference and use of the English language. Some implications about future research and practices are discussed.

English as a Second Language Learners (ESL) programming in K-12 education continues to face ongoing debates regarding its ability to not only support student literacy development but also their academic confidence and growth as learners. Previous studies prioritize the analysis of program implementation and instruction, while important, consideration for bilingual students as individuals becomes a lesser priority. Much of the existing work is focused on identifying standardized solutions for the collective rather than aiming to focus on the individual student. There is little knowledge on how the collective focus of programs impacts students' academic confidence and their growth as learners within academic settings. To address this gap of knowledge, researchers seek to explore the question: How do ESL program structures influence students' academic confidence and growth as learners in elementary classrooms? For this study a qualitative research design will be used and will consist of classroom observation and semi-structured interviews with fourth grade teachers. Through these observations of student interaction and engagement as well as interviews with teachers about their perceptions of students' learning, this study aims to find how ESL program structures influence students' academic confidence and growth as learners. The findings gained from this research may contribute to future improvements in ESL programming, as well as improvements in literary support for bilingual students that will result in supporting students' academic confidence.

Creative writing is not only for the literary. It can be used as a tool to aid multilingual students in college, in various fields. Multilingual students are at risk of being left behind, because institutions lack resources to support their acquisition and confidence in English. A review of recent literature demonstrates that creative writing practices and exercises can also aid in language acquisition and increase students’ comfort levels in classes. As students become more at ease, the collaborative nature of creative writing bonds students, forging community. Introspective and expressive exercises allow for a deeper level of self-understanding, whereas having students observe the environments around them allows for cultural representation and examination. Applying Critical Language Awareness (CLA) pedagogy, which bridges the extremes of conforming to standard language ideology and meshing all the language varieties at the students’ disposal, gives college students higher senses of agency and belonging. In this way, creative writing can create room for higher levels of retention among multilingual college students. My goal is to form recommendations for praxis or pedagogy to give to tutors and teachers of multilingual students to bridge that gap and also increase college students’ belonging and retention in higher education.