Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by repetitive behaviors, restricted interests, and difficulties with social communication. Genetic causes of ASD have been widely debated; however, genome-wide association studies provide insight into highlighting genes of interest associated with specific phenotypes. Due to the fewer characteristics associated with ASD, it is suggested that neuronal pathway development had abnormalities during critical periods of brain development. In this review, I analyzed gene mutations associated with neuronal signaling and explored how these pathways are impacted by genetic and epigenetic factors. Here, I show how FMR1 and SHANK3 impact the expression of ASD. I found that a silencing mutation of the FMR1 gene is associated with behavioral defects as a result of FMRP depletions which affected processes associated with synapse formation and dendritic spine growth. I also found that mutations in the SHANK3 gene are associated with altered brain development and connectivity due to abnormalities in the morphogenesis of dendritic spines. My findings indicate that synaptic function and plasticity play key roles in the pathogenesis of ASD, as well as highlight epigenetic factors like DNA methylation, glutamatergic, and GABAergic systems and how they impact gene expression. I anticipate this research will contribute to the discussion regarding the roles certain genes have in contributing to ASD, as well as what neurobiological processes are impacted by mutations that alter their functions.

Psychedelics with 5-HT2A receptor agonism (e.g., psilocybin, LSD, ayahuasca) have shown promise in treating mood disorders due to their neuroplasticity-inducing abilities. However, social and environmental stressors profoundly shape the psychedelic experience, complicating the set-and-setting context for targeted demographic sectors. A hypervigilant state driven by behavioral adaptation to social stress may hinder structural plasticity, increasing susceptibility to challenging psychedelic experiences. This study evaluated whether social stressors and behavioral masking predicted challenging and mystical dynamics of psychedelic experiences among those in these sectors. We hypothesized that higher social stress and behavioral masking would predict more challenging experiences. In a cross-sectional survey of 27 participants (33% multiracial, 33% white, 15% Latino, 11% Asian, and 7% other; 56% women; 52% sexual minorities), respondents reported on a most recent or salient psychedelic experience (93% recreational). Pearson correlations tested how psychological well-being (via Ryff’s Scale), social stress (Trauma Symptoms of Discrimination Scale), and behavioral masking (Quinn Active Concealment Scale) predicted acute dynamics of the psychedelic session captured via Challenging (e.g., paranoia) and Mystical Experience (e.g., transcendence) Questionnaires. Higher behavioral masking and socially induced stress (uncontrollable hyperarousal) significantly predicted greater paranoia; however, hyperarousal also predicted greater transcendence. Ultimately, acute paranoia, hyperarousal, and behavioral masking predicted lower post-session psychological well-being and personal growth. Our results suggest active behavioral masking and social stress may be linked to paranoia during a psychedelic session. Yet, acute distress may coincide with a mystical breakthrough, helping clarify how social environmental contexts impact psychedelic-assisted therapy efficacy within impacted demographic sectors.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a lifelong neurodevelopmental condition often associated with learning, cognitive, social, and behavioral concerns. While the behavioral symptoms of ASD (deficits in anxiety regulation, social interactions, etc.) have been studied in rat models, the methods of analyzing and setting up behavioral assays (specifically the tube, three-chamber, and juvenile play behavior tests) have not been standardized. This makes critical comparisons of results difficult, damaging researchers’ ability to find meaningful differences that can lead to insights about ASD. This literature review aims to analyze existing behavioral studies of various rat models of ASD to identify methodological differences that may cause contradicting results. Using a scoping approach, the methods and outcome of research papers published between 2016 and 2026 were examined and compared. Findings are expected to support the need for a standardized method for analyzing behavioral data of rat models of ASD in order to be able to properly make conclusions about behavior.

Previous research demonstrated that through Pavlovian learning, drug states can be established to control behavior evoked by an environmental cue conditionally associated with rewarding outcomes. This research explores whether drug stimuli (nicotine or amphetamine) can be established to exert simultaneous positive and negative occasion setting functions over two different stimuli within the same setting. This would establish a more sophisticated methodological approach to studying stimulus effects of drugs. Ten Sprague-Dawley rats (5 male, 5 female) underwent conditioning, and once reliable responding was established interspersed generalization tests. Conditioning sessions included ten 15-sec stimulus trials. During conditioning sessions, rats received injections of the assigned training drug assigned at random, before a 30-min conditioning session. For example, on days rats were injected with nicotine; brief access to 26% sucrose was presented following light trials but not following tone trials. The opposite is true for amphetamine days. Following 40 days of conditioning, generalization testing began and rats received a range of doses of the training drugs. Data was collected via Med Associates program and statistically analyzed. Nicotine and amphetamine have been established as Pavlovian occasion setting stimuli with opposing functions (positive vs negative) over two distinct stimuli within the same environment. From the generalization tests, nicotine generalized at dose immediately below the training dose, and there was a loss of associative control doses higher and lower than the training dose. There was no generalization of amphetamine and at any of the assessed doses. Additional studies may examine substitution test with other stimulant drugs.